Area: 207,600sq km Population: 9,800,000 (end 2004 est) CapitalCity:Minsk (population 1.8m) People: Belarusian (77.9%), Russian (13.2%), Polish (4.1%), Ukrainian (2.9%), other (1.9%) Languages: Belarusian and Russian, are the official national languages Religions: Eastern Orthodox Christian (80%), Roman Catholic, other (incl. Protestant, Jewish and Muslim) Currency: Belarusian rouble (BRb) Major political parties: Agrarian Party (AP); Belarusian Labour Party (BLP) (unregistered); Belarusian Popular Front (BPF); Belarusian Social Democratic Party 'Hramada'; Communist Party of Belarus (CPB); Conservative Christian Party of the BPF; Party of Communists of Belarus; United Civic Party (UCP); Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) Form of government: Presidential Republic Head of State:Alexander Grigoryevich Lukashenko Prime Minister/Premier: Sergei Sidorsky Foreign Minister: Sergei Martynov Membership of international groupings/organisations: Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), Euro Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC), European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), International Labour Organisation (ILO), International Monetary Fund (IMF), Interpol, NATO's Partnership for Peace, Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), United Nations (UN), World Bank, World Health Organisation (WHO)
GEOGRAPHY
Belarus is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe and borders Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia and Ukraine. The terrain is mostly low-lying with forests and flat marshes. The climate is continental: cold winters, warm & humid summers.
HISTORY
Recent History
Throughout the 'perestroika' period (1985-91), was under the control of old-style Communist Party authorities, who were nervous about the nationalist aspirations articulated by intellectuals. The devastation wrought in 1986 by the Chernobyl disaster, (70% of the radiation fell on , contaminating one third of its territory), alienated increasing numbers of Belarusians. In July 1990, the Belarusian Supreme Soviet (Parliament) adopted a wide-ranging Declaration of Sovereignty. declared independence in August 1991 following the failed coup in Moscow.
In December 1991 became a founding member of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). In March 1994, the Communist-dominated Supreme Soviet adopted ' first post-Soviet constitution. This switched the country from a parliamentary to a presidential form of government, under which the president is popularly elected.
Presidential elections were held in July 1994. The populist, non-party Alexander Lukashenko (a former collective farm manager) won 80% of the votes in the second round. Pitching his message to a politically inexperienced electorate disillusioned with the early experience of economic reform and concerned about declining living standards, Lukashenko called for a crackdown on crime and corruption, renewed economic relations with and a halt to privatisation, including that of land.
Parliamentary elections were held in May 1995 for a unicameral parliament, the 260-member Supreme Soviet. Low turnout (with President Lukashenko himself subtly discouraging his countrymen from voting) and the complexity of the voting system left the legislature well short of the quorum of 174 members required by the constitution. The Soviet-era parliament elected in 1990, the Supreme Soviet (12th convocation), filled the vacuum until an electoral round was held in December 1995 which brought the total of members to 198 and finally achieved a quorum.
Relations between President Lukashenko and the Supreme Soviet were tense. Parliament resisted the president's efforts to strengthen his powers. It was supported by the Constitutional Court, which overruled a number of presidential decrees. Lukashenko's solution was to re-write the constitution, dissolve parliament and put his own appointees in the Constitutional Court.
In a heavily manipulated referendum held in November 1996, President Lukashenko won overwhelming endorsement for a radically rewritten constitution. The Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) declared the conduct of the referendum to have been neither free nor fair. Despite a ruling by the Constitutional Court that the referendum was unconstitutional, Lukashenko declared the results to be binding.
The new constitution gave the president extensive powers relative to those of the judiciary and replaced the existing parliament with a bicameral National Assembly with much weaker powers. This consisted of a 110-seat Chamber of Representatives (lower house) and a 64-seat Council of the Republic (upper house). The 110 members of the lower house were appointed by Lukashenko, who selected obedient members of the outgoing parliament. The 64-member upper house was created by a combination of presidential appointments and the results of the January 1997 elections by ' six regional councils and Minsk city council. The new constitution prolonged Lukashenko's term in office for a further two years to 2001.
Western governments refused to recognise the new parliament, which functioned as little more than a rubber-stamp. The Supreme Soviet (Thirteenth Convocation) was forcibly dissolved. Those deputies who were not invited to join the new Chamber of Representatives declared themselves still to be the rightful parliament. The Constitutional Court was also dissolved and was replaced by a new Court, which had no right to examine presidential decrees. Since 1996 Lukashenko has effectively ruled by decree.
Accusing Lukashenko of staying in power beyond his legitimate term, the opposition decided to hold its own presidential election in May 1999. There were two candidates: Zenon Paznyak and former prime minister Mikhail Chyhir. The latter was arrested in March 1999. Many believe the charge of grand larceny was politically inspired. He was sentenced to three months' imprisonment, which prevented him from conducting an election campaign. The election was not a success and few believed the opposition's claims that over 50% of the electorate had taken part. When Lukashenko's term expired in July 1999, the opposition declared former parliamentary speaker Semyon Sharetsky the interim president.
Elections
In October 2000, parliamentary elections took place for the first time since the controversial referendum of 1996. The OSCE's Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR) also concluded that these elections failed to meet international standards for free, fair and transparent elections.
The majority of opposition parties announced that they were boycotting the parliamentary elections. These included the Belarusian Popular Front, the United Civic Party, the Social Democratic Party, and the Women's Party 'Nadzeya'. Declaring that the conduct of the elections did not comply with international standards, the OSCE, Council of Europe and European Union declined to send official observers. Instead the European Parliament and the OSCE and CoE Parliamentary Assemblies dispatched a 'limited technical assessment mission.'
Presidential elections took place in September 2001. Lukashenko declared victory against his two challengers, Sergei Gaydukevich, leader of the Liberal Democratic Party and Vladimir Goncharyk, the united opposition candidate. Improbably, the Belarusian Central Election Commission announced that Lukashenko won 75% of the vote with Goncharyk securing 15%. However the ODIHR report concluded that the presidential election process failed to meet OSCE commitments for democratic elections. There were serious flaws including unequal access to the media for opposition candidates; biased media reporting in favour of Lukashenko; delay in inviting the OSCE Observation Mission and visa denials for two long-term observers. The Mission was downgraded to an International Limited Election Observation Mission.
Lukashenko was due to leave office in 2006. However, in another heavily manipulated referendum, which was held in parallel to the parliamentary elections of 17 October 2004, Lukashenko secured overwhelming support to amend the Constitution, removing the two term Presidential limit. The concurrent elections were judged not to meet international standards. Of the 110 seats contested, all were won by pro-government candidates. ODIHR, which deployed a full Election Observation Mission, concluded in its initial findings that the elections 'fell significantly short of OSCE standards for democratic elections'. It went on to say that universal principles and constitutionally guaranteed rights of expression, association and assembly were seriously challenged, and the dominant influence of the State administration was apparent throughout the organisation of the election process'.
The EU subsequently condemned the conduct of the election and questioned whether the results of both the election and referendum fully reflected the will of the Belarusian electorate. At the same time, the EU stressed that it was still willing to deepen its relationship with , but only once the Belarusian authorities clearly demonstrate their willingness to respect democratic values and the rule of law.
' Presidential election on 19 March 2006 was characterised by massive fraud and intimidation of the opposition. Lukashenko was declared the winner with 83% of the vote. The OSCE's election observation mission called the elections “severely flawed due to the arbitrary use of state power and restrictions on basic rights”. The opposition has held a number of demonstrations since March. On the evening of 23 March the Belarusian authorities broke up the main opposition demonstration in central Minsk. Over that weekend, security forces used violence against the protestors and sealed off the city's main square to prevent subsequent rallies. The demonstrators moved instead to a nearby park, where Alexander Kozulin (a presidential candidate) was arrested after leading demonstrators on a march to the detention centre where those arrested after the election were being held. He was subsequently sentenced to five and a half years in a trial which was clearly politically motivated and unfair.
Opposition leader Alexander Milinkevich was arrested on 27 April together with two other opposition leaders, Alexander Bukhvostov (Head of the Labour Party) and Sergei Kalyakin (Head of the Party of Communists). Vinchuk Vyachorka (Head of the Belarusian People's Front) was arrested on 26 April. Milinkevich, Bukhvostov and Vyachorka were sentenced to 15 days and Kalyakin to 14 days for "participating in an unauthorised rally". They had taken part in a demonstration on 26 April to mark the twentieth anniversary of the Chernobyl disaster.
On 10 April 2006, the EU General Affairs and External Relations Council (GAERC) Conclusions announced the imposition of a travel ban on 31 individuals, including Lukashenko, responsible for electoral fraud and the subsequent crackdown on civil society. On 18 May EU Foreign Ministers agreed to impose further restrictive measures in the form of asset freezes on the same 31 individuals. Four further individuals involved in the prosecution of Kozulin and other opposition activists were added to both lists on 23 October 2006.
On 14 January 2007, local elections were held in . They cannot be seen to have been free and fair. The opposition was prevented from campaigning by registration problems, and an inability to print campaign materials or hold meetings with their constituents. Turnout for the local elections was high with 79% casting their vote. There were no international observers to monitor the elections. However, unofficial observation by the Belarus Helsinki Committee reported irregularities and intimidation of opposition candidates and supporters, lack of media equality and problems with voter lists and counting. The October 2006 amendments to the Electoral Code also created problems for the opposition. On 15 January 2007, the EU issued a statement declaring that the elections did not meet democratic standards and the "rights to freedom of opinion, of association and of assembly, as well as the rights of the opposition, were seriously impaired."
Longer Historical Perspective
The name was adopted in 1991 when the country became independent. Previously it had been known by the russified name (White Russia). The history of the state goes back to the 9th century principality of Polotsk. During the 13th-14th centuries, all Belarusian lands, along with most of and part of , were embraced by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. (The name '', or 'Litva' in Belarusian, at different times was applied to parts of what is today and the Belarusians themselves, as well as present-day . This gave rise to the view, popular among nationally minded Belarusians that the Grand Duchy was a form of Belarusian state or a multi-ethnic state where the Belarusians constituted the core.) In the 16th - 18th centuries the Grand Duchy of Lithuania formed a distinct part of the PolishCommonwealth.
The 15th-17th centuries were marked by significant political, economic and cultural achievements. Belarusians take particular pride in Francysk Skaryna's printed Bible (1517) and the uniquely developed legal code of the 16th century, the Statute of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (both in old Belarusian).
In the late 18th century, most of the Grand Duchy became part of the Russian Empire. A brief attempt at independence failed in 1918, and the Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic was established in August 1920. In 1922 it was one of four republics that signed the treaty establishing the Soviet Union. The Treaty of Riga (1921), which ended the Russo-Polish War, left Western Belarus under Polish rule until it was retaken by the in 1939 after the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. was occupied and devastated by the Germans in World War II, losing between a quarter and a third of its population. The post-war reconstruction converted into an industrially, scientifically and militarily advanced SovietRepublic enjoying one of the highest living standards within the .
ECONOMY
Basic Economic Facts
GDP: US$29,600 million (2005, EIU data) GDP per capita: US$2,969 (2005, EUI data) Annual GDP Growth: 9.2% (2005, EUI data) Inflation (Consumer Price Index): 10.3% (2005, EIU data) Major Industries: machine building and metalworking, chemical and petrochemical, food, textiles, woodworking, radio-electronics, agriculture. Major trading partners (2005): , , , , , , , . Exchange rate: 1 GBP = 4,087 Belarusian roubles; US$1 = 2,141 Belarusian roubles (November 2006)
During the late Soviet period, Belarus developed a significant industrial base (defence industries, tractors, textiles, etc) and its population enjoyed a standard of living that was high for the USSR together with a high level of education. After the break-up of the Soviet Union, retained this industrial base. Agriculture is also a significant part of the economy.
After initial attempts to liberalise ' post-Soviet economy, reform slowed under Lukashenko. The majority of all industry remains under the control of the state and is heavily regulated. Foreign investment has been limited due to an unfriendly business environment.
Lukashenko has based his economic strategy on closer relations with , on which remains heavily dependent. This has yielded some benefits: some of ' energy debts to have been written off and others have been met on barter terms. has also benefited from the establishment of the CIS customs union. However, Putin has indicated that in the future will not be so willing to prop up the Belarusian economy. Following the breakdown of negotiations to buy into the Belarusian gas transport network, the state gas monopolist. Gazprom has indicated that from 2007 will have to pay market prices for gas (at present it pays $46.68 per 1000 cubic metres). Lukashenko has said this will cost an extra $200m a year. Negotiations continue.
Given the Belarusian authorities' lack of commitment to economic reform, co-operation with international financial institutions has been difficult. The hesitant reforms started in 1993 enabled Belarus to reach agreement with the IMF on funds under the Systemic Transformation Facility (STF) and later, after difficult negotiations, under a Stand-by Agreement (SBA). almost immediately breached the policy conditions and the loan was suspended. The IMF Resident Representative was withdrawn from Minsk in July 1998, but the IMF staff and the Belarusian authorities continue to talk.
At the CIS summit in Yalta in September 2003, the Presidents of Russia, , and agreed to the establishment of a Single Economic Space which envisages the free movement of goods, services, capital and people between the four countries. Like many other CIS agreements, however, the practical significance of this document remains far from clear.
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
Relations with continue to be the main foreign policy priority for Lukashenko. is a member of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) established when the broke up in 1991. In January 1995, and established a Customs Union (later joined by and ). At the same time, the two states signed an agreement on military cooperation, which allowed to lease several military facilities in for 25 years. In April 1996, and signed a treaty establishing the 'Community of Sovereign Republics', which aimed to deepen economic integration. The two countries co-operate closely in the military and security fields.
The Treaty on the formation of the UnionState was signed in Moscow in December 1999. However, the bilateral relationship has gradually soured since Putin took office, as has pursued an increasingly assertive line toward all the CIS countries, even toward traditionally close allies such as . In August 2002, Putin decided to call Belarus' bluff over integration and humiliated Lukashenko by proposing that Belarus be fully absorbed as a component member of the Russian Federation or, failing this, that some kind of association based on the EU be attempted (implying in the first instance greater economic, rather than political convergence). Putin publicly stated in November 2002 that in the past had given too much to and that now it was time to take something back.
The UnionState continues to go nowhere. A draft Constitutional Act has been prepared by the Russia/Belarus joint parliamentary commission but it is more form than substance. Meaningful union between the two countries seems as far away as ever.
Meanwhile, moves toward monetary union have ground to a halt. The Russian position is that union is desirable in principle, but that it must be preceded by economic convergence (including significant privatisation and liberalisation, and an end to lax fiscal and monetary policies) and that, once achieved, the Russian Central Bank will be the only emission centre (anything else would imply a heavy economic burden for Russia). Such conditions are unacceptable to Lukashenko, as they would greatly undermine his control over the Belarussian economy, which remains the base of his regime. Consequently, there was an air of unreality to the announcement by the Russian and Belarusian governments in early 2003 that would adopt the Russian rouble as its currency by 1 January 2005. This did not happen and the adoption of the Russian rouble was postponed to January 2006 and subsequently to a later date. However, it seems unlikely that any decision to achieve monetary union will be implemented as long as Lukashenko remains in power.
' Relations with the International Community
In February 1993, acceded to the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty and ratified the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START I). In 1996, it fulfilled its undertaking to become a nuclear-free state. Tactical nuclear warheads were withdrawn from the country in May 1992 and the last strategic missiles left for in November 1996. complies with the CFE Treaty. In January 1995, signed NATO's Partnership for Peace Agreement. However, Lukashenko is a critic of NATO enlargement. NATO indicated that Lukashenko's presence at its summit in Prague in November 2002 would be unwelcome. The Czechs subsequently refused him a visa.
European Union
In response to ' poor performance on constitutional and human rights issues, the EU decided in February 1997 to suspend high-level contacts, while offering dialogue and assistance if reforms took place. The EU introduced further measures in September 1997. They restrict EU/Belarus ministerial contact, suspend aid to except for projects which support humanitarian causes or democratisation, suspend ratification of the EU/Belarus Partnership and Cooperation Agreement and rule out EU support for ' membership of the Council of Europe. In November 2004, following the manipulated parliamentary elections and referendum, the EU's General Affairs and External Relations Council (GAERC) re-affirmed the EU’s policy, based on the 1997 conclusions, and called on the Belarusian government to embark on fundamental democratic and economic reforms. At the same time the EU said it remained willing to deepen its relationship with , once the Belarusian authorities demonstrated their willingness to respect democratic values and the rule of law. This twin track policy was confirmed by GAERCs on 7 November 2005 and 30 January 2006, when the Council expressed growing concern about the deteriorating situation of human rights and political freedoms in . In this context the Council noted the importance of Presidential elections in in 2006 and underlined the EU's determination to intensify its support for democracy and human rights in . Travel bans and asset freezes were subsequently imposed as a result of abuses of electoral processes and fundamental human rights.
HUMAN RIGHTS
's human rights record since President Lukashenko came to power in 1994 has been poor. The past year has been no exception. A September 2006 report by Adrian Severin, the UN Special Rapporteur appointed in 2004 by the 60th UN Commission on Human Rights, was highly critical of the situation. This is one of many reports to cite numerous human rights violations including persistent accounts of harassment of NGOs, the independent media, opposition political parties, educational institutions, religious organisations, and trade unions.
This pattern of repression was particularly evident in the build up to parliamentary elections in October 2004 and the presidential election in March 2006, when opposition figures were put under intense pressure and numerous independent media outlets were suspended or closed. The situation continues to deteriorate, while the Belarusian authorities continue to ignore concerns raised by the EU and others.
The EU's concerns include the disappearance of four opponents of the regime in 1999/2000, including former Belarusian Interior Minister Yury Zakharenko and Viktor Gonchar, a deputy of ' 13th Supreme Soviet. Despite appeals from the international community, the Belarusian authorities have yet to investigate satisfactorily these disappearances. The EU has repeatedly called on the Belarusian authorities to open a truly independent investigation, but the Belarusians have failed to act. In response, in September 2004 the EU decided to apply travel restrictions against those Belarusian officials named in the Pourgourides report on 'Disappeared Persons in Belarus' as key actors in the disappearances (this report was adopted by the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe in April 2004). Those subject to the restrictions include the former Head of the Presidential Administration and current Head of the Security Council, Viktor Sheiman, the former Minister for Sports and Tourism, Yuri Sivakov, and the Minister of the Interior, Vladimir Naumov. The travel ban imposed by the 10 April 2006 GAERC includes these three individuals.
Pressure against NGOs continues to grow. Registration is becoming prohibitively expensive, while excessive legal requirements are making it easier for the authorities to shut them down. In April 2005, the Belarusian Supreme Court ordered the closure of the Independent Institute of Social, Economic and Political Studies (IISEPS), an independent polling organisation. The charges against IISEPS, which are indicative of the excessive legal requirements in place, included using its abbreviated title in media publications and failing to provide the authorities with sample questionnaires. The Belarus Helsinki Committee remains vulnerable following various court rulings against it.
The independent media faces ever increasing pressure. Already seriously diminished following numerous closures during the 2004 election period, the few remaining independent media outlets struggle to survive. In October 2005 the state owned monopoly printers and distributors terminated the contract of the last remaining independent daily newspaper, Narodnaya Volya. At the start of 2006 the state owned postal service refused to distribute numerous small independent newspapers. Several have also had problems with printing in . All electronic media is in state hands, and independent media outlets labour under restrictive regulations and increasing (and arbitrarily applied) costs and fines. A report published in March 2005 by the OSCE's representative on Freedom of the Media was critical of the situation in , highlighting the declining number of independent media outlets, the growing number of administrative warnings and suspensions, and the overwhelming dominance of the state media.
Politically motivated arrests and detentions continue, with recent examples including Dmitry Dashkevich (leader of the Malady Front youth movement) and four members of the Partnership NGO. The powers of the authorities to arrest and detain people have increased following the adoption at the end of 2005 of legislation amending the Belarusian Criminal Code and the Criminal Procedure Code. The legislation is aimed at toughening punishments for “activities directed against people and public security' and goes against many of ’ human rights commitments. The EU issued two statements on 2 and 15 December 2005 condemning the new legislation and calling on the Belarusian National Assembly to reconsider its decision to approve it. These calls were ignored.
Selected educational institutions are under increasing pressure, and the EuropeanHumanitiesUniversity in Minsk has been shut down. Trade Unions also face major difficulties - an ILO Commission of Inquiry has concluded that many of the basic civil liberties of trade union members and leaders in have been seriously infringed. The European Commission, fully supported by Member States, has conducted its own investigation confirming these findings. ’ failure to correct the situation could lead to the temporary withdrawal of GSP preferences.
The and EU continue to raise human rights issues with the Belarusian government by way of regular EU statements, demarches by EU heads of mission in Minsk, and through international organisations including the UN and OSCE. In 2005 the EU and US successfully co-sponsored a resolution on at the 61st session of the UN Commission on Human Rights. This also reappointed Adrian Severin as UN Special Rapporteur, although the Belarusians refused to allow him entry into the country. No UNCHR was held in 2006. Severin was, however, reappointed by the new Human Rights Council.
HEALTH
Although Chernobyl is located in , over 70% of the radioactive fallout resulting from the meltdown and explosion in April 1986 fell on the territory of Belarus. Twenty per cent of ' forests are contaminated as is over 6,000sq km of prime agricultural land. Many Belarusians have been affected by the catastrophe and many Belarusian children visit the for recuperative holidays funded and supported by British charities, individuals and the British Embassy.
